Cultural Geography

Fall 2004

Chapter 5: LANGUAGE AND RELIGION: MOSAICS OF CULTURE

 

  1. Language and religion are basic components of culture. They are mentifacts of the ideological subsystem, serving to identify, to unite, and to divide different population groups while also affecting the sociological and material subsystems of a culture.
  2. Languages disperse in space- carried by migrants, colonizers and conquerors. (push factor)
  3. Languages are abandoned (or accepted) in order to be accepted into a new culture or when people adopt a language from colonizers/conquerors. (pull factors)

 

  • Languages are the most important cultural medium- structures the perceptions of its speakers
  • 6,800 languages in the world
  • 225 in Europe
  • 150 in Sub-Saharan Africa

 

Classification of Languages

Language- organized system of spoken words by which people communicate

 

  • ½ of world population speaks 8 languages
  • 20-50% of 7,000 languages are effectively dead- not being learned or spoken by children
  • estimated that only 600 languages will be spoken by 2100.
  •  2,000 years ago, Latin was the common language of Europe (ancestral tongue of the Romance languages.)
  • Languages have common roots in protolanguages, and linguistic diversity is reduced by recognizing language families. Present world linguistic patterns reflect past migrations and conquests that have spread a few languages widely and have caused many others to diminish in importance or disappear.
  • Genetic classification- by origin and historical relationship
  • Indo-European- branches include Romance and Germanic (spoken by ½ world’s people.  Turkey (2,500 BC) is likely site of origin

 

World Pattern of Languages

 

Amerindian Languages- 2-3,000 disappeared due to European conquest

Paleo-Asiatic- languages disappear with eastward Slavic expansion

Arabic- an Afro-Asiatic language, dispersed with the spread of Islam.  Official language of over 20 countries and 250 million people.

 

Language Spread

•         Different forms of diffusion

–        Relocation- population movement

–        Expansion- acculturation by adopting culture

–        Hierarchical- adoption of language via politics, business, social situations- India after English established administrative and judicial systems

 

3. Language spread displays all forms of spatial diffusion and acculturation. Cultural and physical diffusion barriers may be recognized in the present world pattern of languages.

 

Barriers include- preservation of cultural identity, water/mountain barriers or spread through plains, etc.

 

Language Change- via migration, segregation and isolation.  Language develops as people communicate exclusively.

 

English Change-

  • 10,000 new words from Norman conquest (11th Century)
  • 16th century (12,000 words from Latin, Greek and others)
  • Discovery/Colonization- new foods, vegetation, animals and artifacts, 2,200 words from Native American languages.
  • Scientific and technological words
  • Proto-Germanic
  • Norman Conquest (1066)- French becomes the language of nobility, dropped as London English, enriched by French, grows
  • Samuel Johnson’s English Dictionary- 1755- established norms of proper form and usage
  • 400 years- 7million-375 million native speakers with 750 million as second language- 1.5 billion.  Official language of 60 countries
  • 78% of internet pages in English

 

Pidgin language- system of communication among those that do not share a common language.

Lingua franca- language of international discourse.

Isoglosses- linguistic boundary line. (often parallel physical features of the landscape.

Geographical dialect continuum- chain of dialects or languages across an area.

 

4. Languages are dynamic; they change through isolation, through cultural contact, and through time. Those speaking a common tongue are members of a speech community that may have both a standard language and social and regional dialects.

 

Standard Language (accepted norms of syntax, vocabulary and pronunciation)  Often a literary tradition establishes primacy

 

Dialect- variation within a language

–        Social Dialects- social class, gender and educational level

–        Vernacular Language- nonstandard language (educational or professional dialects

–        Linguistic Geography- study of spatial patterns of language

•         Isogloss- boundary line of territorial extent of language

–        Geographic or Regional Dialects- (such as American, British or Indian English)

–        Figure 5.12- Dialect areas of the US

 

5. As spatial phenomena, languages and their dialects may be mapped. Linguistic geography deals with standard language regions and with boundaries of dialect word choice and pronunciation (isoglosses and isophones). The patterns discerned—as in the United States—display both regional variation and evidence of past diffusion paths from distinctive hearth areas. Toponymy, the study of place names, helps trace those migrations and the presence of former populations within areas.

 

•         Pidgins and Creoles- amalgamation of languages, new language created as a bridge between languages.  Creole is created when a pidgin becomes isolated enough to become distinct.  Swahili is a good example of a creole between Bantu and Arabic

•         Lingua Franca- established language used by societies to establish communication- English is the current.

•         Official Languages- a required language of instruction, government and courts.

–        Sub-Saharan Africa- European languages with less than 10% African as official

–        Nigeria- 350 languages with English as official

•         Language Purity- integration of English into standard languages (French and German)

 

6. Pidgins, creoles, and lingua francas are languages developed or adopted to foster communication between speakers of different tongues. Official languages may serve the same function.

 

Etymology- study of word origins and history

Orthography- system of writing

Toponymy- study of place names.  Describes the origins and values of the namer.

 

Linguistics in Modern World

Languages stabilize with education against world communications

Mexico- most populous Spanish speaking nation.

 

Philological nationalism- mother tongues birthed nations.  Actually, national languages have been cultivated and taught through central governments and education.

Example: Hebrew taught to symbolize Jewish nationalism.

 

Postcolonial languages- many places adopted the language of the colonial power for administration and economic activities.

India- 18 major languages, English unifies.

Polyglot state: two or more official languages.

Languages are defined geographically and socially.

 

US constitution never specified English as the official languages of the US.-  Language as a civil rights issues. Language as an issue in the democratic process- Acculturating with a language can denigrate local culture/ethnic background. (Ebonics (Ebony phonics))

 

Religion

 

Religion- system of beliefs regarding conduct as declared by ancient writings or authoritative teachers. Involve personal commitment to a god or an ethical system.

 

Religion is a major determinant of human behavior- beliefs also affect forms of government, dietary habits, women/s rights, economics and the relationship between people and the environment.

Religions include and organized group of believers and administrative patterns.

 

Orthopraxy- focus on behavior

Orthodoxy- set of theological arguments.

 

7. Religions, like languages, have spatial extent and serve to identify, unite, and divide culture groups. Geographers classify religions as universalizing, ethnic, and tribal. 

 

Universalizing faiths: are most widely distributed- claim applicability to all humans, transmit beliefs through conversion- Christianity, Islam and Buddhism

Ethnic religions: are most closely identified with specific regions and cultures. Tribal religions are being lost through absorption and conversion. Secularism (indifference to or rejection of religion) may be prominent in some societies by personal choice or by imposition. Judaism, Hinduism, Shinto, etc.

Theology and Moral Codes- Christianity/Ten Commandments and New Testaments, Islam/Sharia, Judaism/Torah

 

Monotheism- belief in a single god

Polytheism- belief in many gods

Animism- belief in spirits and spiritual forces

Shamanism- a medium who intervenes between spirit world and humans.

 

8. Each of the limited number of major religions has its own mix of cultural values and its own pattern of innovations and, perhaps, diffusion. Each has a distinctive impact on the cultural landscape.

Patterns and Flows

 

Universalizing- expansionary,

Ethnic- regionally confined- diffuse with migration

Tribal- contract spatially as cultures are integrated into modern society and proselytization (often in combination with universalizing)

 

Proselytize: to try to convert others

 

Religious change- conquest, acculturation/proselytize and preservation (shatterbelt- traditional versus popular culture)

 

Areal concentrations- Northern Ireland- Protestant/Catholic, Beirut “Green Line”- Christian/Muslim. Iran- Muslim/Baha’i

 

Fundamentalism- strict adherence to traditional beliefs

Secularism- lifestyle of policy the ignores religious considerations

 

Principal Religions

 

Judaism: first great monotheistic religion. (Henotheism- worship of one god without denying the existence of others.) Pentateuch- 1st 5 books of the Old Testament. Jews descended from Abraham through Isaac, Arabs through Ishmael.  3-4,000 years ago.  Mostly an ethnic religion.

Torah- books of law and scripture

 

Diaspora- scattering of Jews after the destruction of the temple of Jerusalem by Romans in 70 AD- led to diffusion of Jews to Europe and Asia by 500 AD

Lived in Europe in segregated communities called ghettoes.

 

Sephardim- Iberian Peninsula- expelled 15th century (same time as Muslims) Retained a Jude0-Spanish language, Ladino. 

Ashkenazim- fled persecution in Western/Central Europe and settled in Poland, Lithuania and Russia.  These were the Jewish immigrants into the US.  80% of Jewish population.  Language- Yiddish.  Victims of the Holocaust.

 

Zionism- belief the Jews should have a homeland in Palestine- Isreal established in 1948.

 

Christianity: religion of conversion- initially popular with the under classes of the Roman Empire.  Spread of religion by Saint Paul throughout the Eastern Mediterranean.  First non-Jewish converts to Christianity were Ethiopians/Sudanese

Coptic Church- Egyptian Christians.

Christian churches in India established by the disciple Thomas.

Armenia- first Christian country (4th century) At same time it became the religion of the Roman Empire.

Diffusion- Expansion- using Roman sea lanes and roads, Hierarchical- down to provincial capitals and local areas from Rome, Contagious- dissemination throughout Europe through missionaries.  Relocation- spread to the New World with settlers.

 

Official Religion of Roman Empire- 313 AD (Constantine.)

 

Eastern Roman Empire- the Byzantine Church grew with Constantinople the capital (Istanbul) Official split between East and

West in 1054.  Muslim Turks take Constantinople in 1453.

Third Rome- Moscow, as Eastern Church moves to flee Turks.

Protestant Reformation: 15th and 16th centuries- split the western church- Roman Catholic in South and Protestant in West and North

 

1549- St. Francis travels to Japan (almost became a Christian nation)

Roman Catholicism- largest Christian denomination.

 

Christianity has a worse record of religious persecution than Islam.

 

Sacerdotalism- belief that a church or priest intercedes between God and humans

 

Evangelical Christians- believe salvation by faith through personal conversion.  Growing world-wide

 

Largest religion- 1/3 of world population and largest area- moved from its hearth where it is no longer significant.

 

Christianity becoming an Asian and African religion.

 

Christian Regions

Canada- 85% of Canadians belong to Roman Catholic, Anglican or United Church of Canada.

Quebec- 88% Roman Catholic

US- 85% belong to 20 different denominations.

New England- French, Irish and Portuguese Catholics

Southwest- Hispanic Catholics

Western Area (Utah)- Mormons (LDS)

 

Christian Mark on cultural landscape-

  • Europe and Latin America- Church is center of community hierarchy
  • North America (Protestant)- less importance of church architecture
  • Cemeteries (Christian, Jewish and Muslim) are associated with churches and make up a significant urban land use.
  • US- diverse religious landscape with many symbols
  • Megachurch- development of huge church structures and facilities

 

Islam

Submission to the will of Allah-

Islam- Founded by Mohammed (570-632)

Hegira- Muhammad’s flight from Mecca (622 AD.)  Prophets include Adam, Noah, David, Abraham, Moses and Jesus.

Islam, carried to the far corners of North Africa and Southwest Asia by the great Arab conquest of the seventh and eighth centuries, is the religion of 93% of the region's (North Africa and Middle East) population. Arabic is the first language of around 57% of the region's population.   At one point was much greater than any Christian empire. (Expansion diffusion)

Relocation diffusion- into Indonesia and East Africa.

Majority of populations in 39 countries, largest number in Asia and largest density in Africa (42%) 1.25 billion Muslims

 

Currently fastest growing major religion.

Shatterbelts- areas of cultural and other conflict

 

Most Islamic countries disregard their history before their conversion to Islam.

 

Albania- only Muslim country of Europe

 

Countries such as Iran, refer to themselves as Islamic republics, incorporating Islamic beliefs into the very structure of government.

 

Saudi Arabia go as far as organizing their system of civil and criminal codes around Koranic precepts, while others such as Syria and Iraq accept the significance of Islam but are totally committed to a secular, single-party state. Turkey, the region's largest nation, attempts to constitutionally separate and relegate religion to a status of non-governmental involvement.   Turkey (Constantinople, now Instanbul) was center of Christian Byzantine Empire.

 

Five Pillars of the Islamic Faith

1. Confession of faith - there is no God but God and Mohammed is his messenger.

2. Alms giving.

3. Prayer five times per day, prayers on Friday being most pleasing to God.

4. Ramadan - no eating, drinking or sex from sun-up to sun-down for one lunar month (to teach God's reconciled what it means to be poor).

5. Pilgrimage to Makkah (Haji).

 

Friday prayer service is required for all Males

 

Qu'ran (Koran): Word of Allah- rules of worship and human conduct instruction.  can only be written in Arabic (prayers too)

 

Major cleavages of Islam

1. Sunni the orthodox; constitute at least 85% of all Moslems in the world today.

2. Shi'a - Partisans of Ali. Ninety percent of all Shi'a Moslems today are found in Iran. Shiite sects, of which there are many include mystical Sufis and Christian-like Alawis of Syria.  Also in southern Iraq.

3. The division of Islam was a result of a quarrel for leadership (Khalifate) after the death of Mohammand in the seventh century. Islamic Fundamentalism constitutes a growing force in region change and politics.

 

Mosque- place of worship- center of Muslim

 

Hinduism and Sikhism

 

Web of religious, philosophical, social, economic and artistic elements

1 billion followers worldwide- 80% of Indian population

Contagious Diffusion- spread Hinduism through India

Largest Hindu Temple- Cambodia

 

Most ancient religion in Asia- Indus River.  Vedas (Hindu sacred texts) from 1,800 BC

Brahman- Supreme Consciousness with aspects as 3 deities- Brahma (Creator)- universal soul, Vishnu (Preserver) and Siva (Destroyer)

Hinduism believes in reincarnation and the role of Karma (sum of your past behavior)  All creatures are ranked with humans art the top. 

 

Hindus are born into a caste system- extending the ranking

Dharma- laws and duties

Ahimsa- prohibition to harm life

Jainism- 6th century BC, rejects caste distinction with different teachings about karma.

Sikhism- based upon the teachings of Guru Nanak (1469-1539) Attempted reconciliation of Hinduism and Islam.  Sikh’s holy temple in Amritsar, Punjab.  Hindu violence (Government troops) in this temple resulted in the assassination of Indira Gandhi.

 

Indian Sub-continent is home to two of the world's great religions, Hindu and Buddhism. India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are geopolitically unusual in that their national boundaries were created by the British in 1947 on the basis of religious criteria. South Asian geographic areas predominately populated by Hindus were allocated to India at partition. Those areas populated mostly by Moslems were allocated to either Pakistan or modern Bangladesh (called East Pakistan at partition). Moslem Kashmir occupied early on by India, remains an arena of conflict and contention.

 

Buddhism

 

Siddhartha Gautama (563- 483 BC) Nepali Hindu prince achieving the status of Buddha (Enlightened One.)

Four Noble Truths

1.      Life involves suffering

2.      The cause of suffering is desire

3.      Elimination of desire ends suffering

4.      Desire can be eliminated by right thinking and behavior

Nirvana- (total transcendence) cessation of suffering

 

Contagious Diffusion

As Buddhism moved Eastward, it declined in India with a major revival of Hinduism (400 AD)

 

Schools of Buddhism:

Theravada- Southern India (monks strive for deliverance)- Southeast Asia, oldest form of Buddhism- emphasizes the 4 Noble Truths, requires personal redemption and service as a monk or nun.

Mahayana- moved to the north (China, Korea and Japan) (Bodhisattvas- one who merits nirvana but postpones for all to reach enlightenment)  Buddha is divine, emphasizes meditation, polytheistic and ritualistic

Vajrayana (Lamaism)- Bhutan, Tibet and Mongolia (elaborate rituals and priestly hierarchy) Dalai Lama, exiled from Tibet by China. Emphasized meditation and philosophy, then monastic and ritualistic

Cha’an- Chinese Buddhism – spontaneous enlightenment  Zen Buddhism- Japanese

American Buddhism- Centered on West Coast- related to Zen

State religions of Thailand and Sri Lanka

Bhutan is a Constitutional Theocracy

 

Syncretic Religions- combine universalizing religion and traditional beliefs

 

Confucianism- system of “right living” by K’ung Fu-tzu (551-479 BC)The Analects- for harmony

Taoism- from the Toa-te Ching by Lao-tze (600 BC) advocates a contemplative life in accord with nature

Shinto- The Way of the Gods- Japanese religion involving ancestor reverence and elaborate rituals.

 

Politics and Social Impacts of Religion

 

Theocracy- government ruled by a church

Christian issues- division of govt. and religion. US first country to explicitly divide church and state.

Islam- no separation between church and state

Sharia Law- Islamic teachings and codes of law.

Madrassas- fundamentalist Muslim schools

US one of the most religious nations one earth (87% identify themselves as Christians)

Religious issues- Pledge of Allegiance (reference to God added in 1954)

41% of US Christians Roman Catholic

 

Protestant Work Ethic- Linking of Protestantism and capitalism by Max Weber. Individual ability leads to success and is a recognized virtue in the marketplace.

 

Religions are related to places- Hindus (Ganges River), Christians (Jordan River), Shinto (Mt. Fuji), etc.